UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL BULLETIN ANNOUNCEMENT 

Florida International University  

University Graduate School  

Doctoral Dissertation Defense

Abstract  

Investigating Spatial Thinking with Technology: A Focus on  Eye-Tracking Data and Mental Rotation 

By 

Karinna A. Rodriguez  

Mental rotation, defined as the ability to visualize the manipulation of an image or object without physically moving it and is linked to academic achievement across multiple domains. Much of the existing literature has examined mental rotation development at isolated levels of analysis, limiting a comprehensive understanding of how multiple developmental systems interact to shape individual differences. To address this gap, the present dissertation investigates mental rotation development through the lens of the Relational Developmental Systems (RDS) perspective, which emphasizes the dynamic interdependence of psychological, biological, and cultural systems across development. Across three manuscripts, this dissertation advances the study of spatial thinking in early childhood by integrating innovative technological methods within an RDS framework. The first manuscript outlines how technology can be used to measure individual differences in young children’s spatial thinking across multiple levels of analysis. The second manuscript examines whether pupillary responses can serve as a measure of cognitive effort during children’s mental rotation tasks. In a sample of 161 children aged 3 to 7 years, pupil diameter was recorded while children completed mental rotation trials with varying angular disparities. Generalized additive mixed models revealed dynamic, non-linear changes in pupil diameter across trials, indicating time-varying engagement and cognitive effort. These findings demonstrate that pupillometry can capture nuanced temporal markers of cognitive effort in early childhood. Using the same sample, the third manuscript extends this work by examining how non-social and social visual stimuli shape individual differences in mental rotation performance and cognitive effort. Results showed higher accuracy and larger pupil diameter changes during social trials, along with substantial individual variability not explained by age or sex. Together, these studies demonstrate the value of pupillometry for examining mental rotation development through an RDS lens, advancing developmental theory and informing future research and interventions.  

Date: March 19, 2026    Department: Psychology  

Time: 12:00 pm Major Professor: Dr. Shannon Pruden 

Place: Deuxieme Maison 223